Problems Facing University Students

Monetary Challenges Facing University Students FA120-Skills to succeed Group Creative critical thinking task By Megan Sweeney (12522637) Anna Heffernan (12743239) And Ross Swords (12344681) Word Count: 2,000 200 and eight. Substance Page Section 1: Summary | Pages 3 and 4| Section II: Details of the understudies challenge| Pages 4 and 5| Section III: Findings| Pages 5 and 6| Section IV: Possible arrangements and recommendations| Page 6| Section V: Recommendations| Page 6| References | Page 7| Section I: Summary. IntroductionAfter talking about our task as a gathering we perceived what issues and difficulties might be pertinent to college understudies. We felt the point generally pertinent to ourselves as a gathering and most of college understudies, was the money related difficulties looked by college understudies. For most understudies as they start college it is their first time living endlessly from home which can make issues for both the understudy and their families monetarily w ith both the significant expenses engaged with sending an understudy to college and the challenges the understudy faces themselves in planning their week by week allowance.Many understudies battle to organize their cash accurately and frequently spend more cash on mingling week by week than on the fundamentals, for example, food, and regularly there is practically zero cash left to put towards books and educational program based exercises. With the end goal of this task and to help ourselves as understudies deal with our cash in an increasingly affordable way we have explored the issues and arrangements which happen in the regular daily existence of an Irish college understudy. Explanation of the understudy challengeThe budgetary troubles looked by a college researcher are realized by the significant expense of education costs which are continually expanding because of poor administration by our past governments, the significant expense of understudy settlement for those understudie s who need to move away from home to go to college. Understudies living ceaselessly from home additionally must have a week by week remittance for basics, warming and power bills, and school gear, for example, books, mini-computers, workstations and stationary.Many understudies that don’t move away from home face high voyaging costs every week with the expense of open vehicle continually expanding as the administration climb up the costs so as to endeavor to get the nation out of downturn. The essentialness of the test We picked this point as there is presently so much publicity being made as to the monetary emergency and the impact it is having on the expense of going to college which is making immense budgetary issues for understudies and their families going to university.The government has significantly decreased the measure of money related guide accessible for students, numerous understudies no longer get the award installment which has brought about numerous youngsters not having the option to complete their degrees. Because of the current financial atmosphere understudies are once in a while ready to make sure about a steady activity with the goal that they can bolster themselves, which powers numerous understudies to be reliant on government remittances. Again this causes money related issues for the understudies as the recompenses accessible to third level understudies are minimal.We needed to investigate the various backings accessible to college understudies to assist understudies with defeating their budgetary problem’s. Area II: Details of the understudy challenge. For every understudy going to college the normal expense can fluctuate altogether relying upon whether they need to move away from home, go a significant distance to school day by day or travel a short good ways from their home to school every day. The accompanying table gives a sign of the month to month average cost for basic items in Galway as an understudy. These expe nses are an estimation just as month to month costs will rely upon each person’s singular needs (NUIG Student-Life 2012).Accommodation| 340 euro| Food| 260 euro| Books/scholarly requisites| 60 euro| Clothes, laundry| 60 euro| Recreation| 180 euro| Other| 100 euro| Monthly Total| 1,000 euro| Multi month scholastic year| 9,000 euro| As the normal Irish yearly pay is â‚ ¬24,316 (Irishexaminer. ie), the expense of sending an understudy to college is more than 33% of the normal Irish yearly pay and this is before the education costs must be paid for which in itself presents a colossal test for a family to have the option to help both the understudy and the remainder of the family.With this at the top of the priority list most understudies need however much assistance as could be expected to spending plan, deal with their cash and utilize the markdown and money related plans accessible through the college. The college gives a scope of emotionally supportive networks to assist un derstudies with beating monetary difficulties they may confront. For understudies living ceaselessly from home clinical costs can be an immense test as new specialists can cheat understudies, understudies can likewise be confronted with the trouble of planning for clinical costs as understudies can’t anticipate when they will become ill.The National University of Ireland Galway has remembered a large number of understudies from the concerns and difficulties they face as to clinical expenses as they furnish a full clinical focus with Doctors, Nurses and physiatrist for nothing out of pocket to all understudies in the college. â€Å"Only 10% of the understudy body is qualified for a clinical card (GMS). A clinical card qualifies the holder with the expectation of complimentary counsel, free remedies and free hospitalization. Understudies are not qualified for a clinical card except if their folks have such a card or except if they are on an award. Develop understudies I. e. ve r 24 years old could be qualified for a card in their own privilege contingent upon salary. † (NUIG Student-Life 2012). This is a splendid help administration accessible to all NUI Galway understudies regardless of what monetary foundation the understudy originates from. The month to month food cost for a college understudy is 200 and sixty euro, this can shift tremendously relying upon whether the understudy is affordable about where they shop and what they purchase. Understudies can significantly lessen their shopping costs by shopping in the less expensive general stores, for example, Lidl, Aldi and Tesco as opposed to littler accommodation stores which tend be considerably more costly. Furthermore, the way to great shopping is records †records you stick to. Never shop hungry and don’t depend on the large name retailers that your people have shopped in for quite a long time, betray brand names and just purchase own-image nourishments †you will spare yoursel f a parcel. A liter of milk from Avonmore costs â‚ ¬1. 14, a liter of Tesco milk costs 75 pennies. † (The Irish Times, September 2012). The University additionally gives hot suppers every day at just â‚ ¬5 in the college eatery which can be exceptionally useful to understudy who don't have the opportunity to get back to eat during the day.As well as the scholarly side to undergrads likewise must have a public activity, which can turn out to be expensive and makes it harder for understudies to spending plan their cash. The titanium ents organization set up a rebate card plan to assist understudies with setting aside cash while mingling. â€Å"Galway Student Discount Card is evaluated to spare a normal understudy â‚ ¬400 per semester/a normal of â‚ ¬5 every night out ( â‚ ¬2 off a taxi, â‚ ¬2 off club administrator and â‚ ¬1 off food after). At a bargain for just â‚ ¬4† (Titaniuments. ie). This is a tremendous assistance to understudies in planning for the social side to their time in university.A enormous monetary issue looked by understudies is the cost of reading material required for the educational program a significant number of these books can cost up to â‚ ¬100 each and must be purchased fresh out of the box new as they all contain singular access codes for course work that must be finished on the web. Numerous understudies need to purchase up to five books for every semester which is an enormous cost and makes a genuine budgetary issue for understudies. Bank of Ireland is at present setting up plans to permit understudies to take out credits to pay for books. Area III: Findings Currently at NUI Galway there are a few strategies set up to assist understudies with living off a little spending plan and spare money.Loyalty cards, for example, the understudy association card can get understudies different limits at various shops and eateries run by the understudies association all through the school. The understudy ass ociation card can likewise procure understudies cash, by buying things at any shop or eatery run by the SU. Understudies can develop credit after some time on their buys and in the long run this credit can be transformed into money. NUI Galway likewise advance the titanium ents card which advances social limits for understudies, for example, free section into clubs, limits on taxicabs, and limits on inexpensive food take aways.In University College Dublin they offer numerous grants to understudies which can be found on www. smurfitschool. ie which is the business college in UCD. A case of one is ‘GMAT MBA Scholarship’ ‘Open to all candidates scoring over 700 on the GMAT. All grant candidates should as of now have been confessed to (have applied for, been met and offered a spot on) the full-time MBA Program before they can be considered for any of the above grants. Open to Irish inhabitants and global candidates. ( UCD-2012) in a college on board, for example, Harv ard, the offer money related guide likewise, for example, ‘Harvard College has given help to understudies who need assistance in meeting their instruction costs for more than 350 years, empowering us to search out the most remarkable researchers on the planet and make our ways for understudies of outstanding capacity and guarantee, paying little mind to their monetary conditions. Over 60% of students will get an expected $172 million in need-based Harvard Scholarship help in 2012-13.Just in the previous five years we have expanded our monetary guide by more than 70 percent, improving our program to guarantee the reasonableness of a Harvard training even in these difficult financial occasions. We comprehend that the idea of financing four years of school can be an overwhelming possibility for anybody,

Finance for Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Fund for Managers - Essay Example Conclusion 23 References 24 Presentation Lloyds Banking Group is viewed as one of the premier gatherings of money related help that render its significant administrations especially in the UK. The gathering conveys its various administrations particularly to individual and corporate clients. Lloyds was renamed in January 2009 after Lloyds TSB obtained HBOS, one of the banking and insurance agencies of the UK, with a dream to turn into the best bank in the UK when contrasted with others. The gathering is seen to be the biggest retail bank working in the UK with driving edge in numerous areas in correlation with different banks winning in the UK. The gathering have various brands that are served to its important clients which at last makes the gathering to improve its efficiency by an impressive level and achieve critical serious situation over its central business advertise contenders (Lloyds banking Group, 2012). This paper expects to fundamentally examine and survey the various wellsprings of long haul money that are right now utilized by Lloyds concerning an itemized conversation about the points of interest just as the weaknesses of each distinguished source upheld with reasonable computations. In addition, the paper additionally assesses the methodologies related with arranging, control, execution the board and budgetary dynamic of the chose association. Different angles, for example, assessing the job of the Management Accountant in Lloyds and perceiving a specific diagnostic method that is utilized by this association that causes the association to settle on compelling arranging and dynamic among others will likewise be depicted in this paper. Question 1 Identification and Assessment of long haul money sources Used by Lloyds Banking Group Lloyds distinguish subsidizing to be a key zone of center for its fruitful business execution. The gathering raises its drawn out account through executing different sources that incorporate value capital, client stores, discount subsidizing and obligation financing (Michigan Economic Development Corporation, 2009). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Source, Supported With Relevant Calculations Equity Capital The most significant wellspring of raising long haul assets for the money related organizations is the issue of value shares. It has been evidently seen that Lloyds considers the issuan ce of value shares as a changeless wellspring of fund for them. This is attributable to the way that the issuance of value capital has expanded the group’s money related base also expanded its acquiring capacity by a huge level. Being a money related organization, there may lay a likely possibility of rising critical danger worried that the issue of value offers may decrease the possession control of the current investors and profits installment can be diminished on the loose. In this comparable setting, the gathering unequivocally accepted that the source for example issuance of value offers would bolster it to alleviate the previously mentioned dangers (Michigan Economic Development Corporation, 2009). Client/Public Deposits Customer or open stores are additionally viewed as another significant wellspring of long haul fund for Lloyds. As indicated by the gathering, client or open

How to Apologize Sincerely and Effectively

How to Apologize Sincerely and Effectively Stress Management Situational Stress Print How to Apologize More Sincerely By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on January 02, 2020 Elke Vogelsang/ Getty Images More in Stress Management Situational Stress Effects on Health Management Techniques Job Stress Household Stress Relationship Stress Relationships can be wonderful buffers against stress, but relationship conflicts can cause considerable emotional pain and stress. Knowing how to apologizeâ€"and whenâ€"can repair damage in a relationship, but if you dont know how to apologize sincerely, you can actually make things worse. Effective apologies are simple if you know what to say. Here are some easy steps to help you learn how to apologize sincerely and effectively. Understand Reasons to Apologize When youve made a mistake or hurt another person, there are many good reasons why you should apologize. By apologizing, you are able to: Open up a line of communication with the other personExpress your regret and remorseAcknowledge that you were wrongDiscuss what is allowed and not allowed in your relationshipLearn from your mistakes and find new ways of dealing with difficult situations A sincere apology can also bring relief, particularly if you have guilt over your actions. An apology alone doesnt erase the hurt or make it ok; it does establish that you know your actions or words were wrong and that you will strive harder in the future to prevent it from happening again. Not apologizing when you are wrong can be damaging to your personal and professional relationships. It can also lead to rumination, anger, resentment, and hostility that may only grow over time. Research suggests that some of the major reasons why people dont apologize are that they arent really concerned about the other person, apologizing threatens their own self-image, or they believe that an apology wont do any good anyway.   Why Apologies Are Important Know When to Apologize Knowing when to apologize is as important as knowing how to apologize. Generally speaking, if you suspect that something you did â€"on purpose or by accidentâ€"caused someone else hard feelings, its a good idea to apologize and clear the air. If what you did would have bothered you if it was done to you, an apology is clearly in order. If youre not sure, an apology offers you the chance to own mistakes you made, but re-establish what you think was okay. If you feel the other person is being unreasonable, a discussion may be in order. You can decide where you stand on the apology after that. While a sincere apology can go a long way toward mending a relationship, people are often unwilling or unable to take this step. Admitting you were wrong can be difficult and humbling. Researchers have found that people who believe that personality is changeable are more likely to apologize for harmful actions.?? Because they feel that change is possible, they feel that accepting the blame for their mistakes is an opportunity for learning and growth. Take Responsibility Taking responsibility means acknowledging mistakes you made that hurt the other person, and its one of the most important and neglected ingredients of most apologies, especially those in the media. Saying something vague like, “I’m sorry if you were offended by something I said,” implies that the hurt feelings were a random reaction on the part of the other person. Saying, “When I said [the hurtful thing], I wasn’t thinking. I realize I hurt your feelings, and I’m sorry,” acknowledges that you know what it was you said that hurt the other person, and you take responsibility for it. Dont make assumptions and dont try to shift the blame. Make it clear that you regret your actions and that you are sincerely sorry. Express Regret When seeking to understand how to apologize effectively, it’s also important to understand the value of expressing regret. Taking responsibility is important, but it’s also helpful for the other person to know that you feel bad about hurting them, and wish you hadn’t. That’s it. They already feel bad, and they’d like to know that you feel bad about them feeling bad. What to Say “I wish I had been more thoughtful.” “I wish I’d thought of your feelings as well.” “I wish I could take it back.” These are all expressions of regret that add to the sincerity of your apology and let the other person know you care. Make Amends If there’s anything you can do to amend the situation, do it. It’s important to know how to apologize with sincerity, and part of the sincerity of an apology is a willingness to put some action into it. If you broke something of someone’s, see if you can replace it. If you said something hurtful, say some nice things that can help to generate more positive feelings. If you broke trust, see what you can do to rebuild it. Whatever you can do to make things better, do it. If you’re not sure what would help, ask the other person what you can do to help them to feel better. Reaffirm Boundaries One of the most important parts of an apologyâ€"one of the best reasons to apologizeâ€"is to reaffirm boundaries. Healthy boundaries are important in any relationship.  When you come into conflict with someone, usually there is a boundary that is crossed. If a social rule is violated or trust is broken, an apology helps to affirm what kind of future behavior is preferred. Discussing what type of rules you both will adhere to in the future will rebuild trust, boundaries, and positive feelings, and provides a natural segue out of the conflict, and into a happier future in the relationship. Own up to Your Partâ€"Not Theirs Remember that when you apologize, youre taking responsibility for your part of the conflict. That doesnt mean that youre admitting that the entire conflict was your fault. People are often afraid to apologize first because they think whoever apologizes first is more wrong or the loser of the conflict. Giving an apology even when only a small part of the conflict was your responsibility is okay, and often healthy. It allows you to establish what you regret your own actions but confirms your own boundaries as well. Its important to be fair in your apology, both to the other person and to yourself. Dont accept all the blame if it isnt all your fault. Apologize for the Right Reasons   When you apologize for just what you did, you can more easily move forward and put the conflict behind you, regardless of the other persons actions. When we apologize, were able to more easily maintain the integrity and forgive ourselves. The other person may be moved to apologize for their actions as well. While getting an apology is often nice, it is important to remember that this doesnt always happen. Trying to evoke an apology from the other person is a manipulative tactic that sometimes backfires. Apologize for your own peace of mind and the other person may be inspired to do the same. Just dont apologize just because you expect an apology in return. Let Go of Resultsâ€"to an Extent Although apologizing can be a way to maintain the integrity and move on from actions were not proud of, most of us also want to repair the relationship and be forgiven. Sometimes this doesnt happen. If the apology was sincere and included the necessary ingredients, your chances of forgiveness are greater, but sometimes the other person just isnt ready or able to forgive and move on. Or they may forgive you, but still, be guarded. Or they may not realize their own role in the conflict. Realize that you cant control their response, and if youve done everything you can, let it go for now. A Word From Verywell Apologies are not always easy, but that can be an important part of mending or maintaining important relationships. With empathy, an open heart, and a dose of courage, you can take the steps you need to make a sincere and honest apology. How to Forgive Others

Essay On Kermits Revenge - 757 Words

Kermit’s Revenge It was time to get back at that sack of pork. Ms. Piggy has been spending all my money on blond wigs, she has been fighting with me, and always takes all the spot light from me. I don’t know what I will do to be rid of her. Hmmm†¦ I can eat her†¦ no I cant, but I could. Gonzo walks in â€Å" Hey Gonzo how are you feeling about the new movie?† â€Å" Not too well Kermit â€Å" I started walking to the set and saw Ms. Piggy walking toward me â€Å" Hey there Kermit can I have the credit card I saw a nice coat down at Wal-Mart?† â€Å" Ughh Fine but bring it back when you’re done.† I looked at how much money I have and it said I spent six billion dollars. I was bankrupt and was furious at Ms. Piggy. I screamed at her and she yelled back. She was so†¦show more content†¦Piggy and that’s it.† I chased him and he ran into the shed behind the trailer and I was creeping behind him. He grabbed an axe and tried to hit me. I d odged it and bit him and all you can hear was the blood-curdling scream of him being eaten. I was still wanting more to eat and then I heard Fozzy open the door. â€Å" Hey you guys alright back there?† Fozzy saw me crouched over Gonzo’s lifeless corpse with blood all over my face. Fozzy screamed and ran back inside. I ran after him and threw one of Ms. Piggy’s arms at him and he tripped. There was nothing but darkness in the room and the light flickered and Fozzy saw me. I started eat Fozzy and then I heard the cops outside. I had a really bad stomach ache. I couldn’t walk because of the pain and the police arrested me. I was still happy that I no longer have to deal with all of Ms. Piggy’s stuff now. I will be in jail but at least I did what I had to do to get rid of my problems. I got out of jail few years later and I’m still hungry for more. I ran around town and ate everyone in the world. I then went to another universe to other friends Donkey and Shrek. I came at a bad time because Shrek had to find over thousands of pancakes and Donkey was going to blow up the planet. So I went back to Earth where the entire population ended up eaten and now in my stomach. I later died of starvation from having of food. I will never forget how I ate Ms. Piggy and all of my friends. The End.

Applying For Masters For International Business Program...

1) At UF I am majoring in Business Administration and I plan on specializing in International Studies. Additionally, I plan on applying for the Masters in International Business Program and spending a semester interning abroad. I am interested in a career working for an international organization or company. At first I wasn’t exactly sure what I wanted for my future, but I soon learned how I could incorporate my love for traveling and experiencing other cultures with my interest in business administration and marketing. My interest for a career in the business field was greatly influenced by my father, who is a businessman himself. 2) Five years from now I don’t know where I would see myself. I hope to have a job in either London or New†¦show more content†¦In order to improve my public speaking and leadership skills I can get involved on campus by joining business clubs and organizations such as The Florida Business Leadership Society or participating in the Heavener Leadership Challenge. Additionally, in order to gain experience in the work field I intend to apply for an internship abroad in London, which will also develop other important traits such as independence, flexibility, and cooperation. 1) Lynda.com taught me several news skills for using Microsoft Word that I did not previous know myself. I feel that one skill that is extremely beneficial for me in any future job includes the proper use of tab tables. Before watching this video I had always used spaces or the table function multiple times in order to create evenly spaced columns to make tables. Once I watched this video I realized t here is a much more efficient way of creating these tab tables which can be beneficial by saving a great deal of time and keeping the format of the document aligned. Mastering the use of tab tables can be useful in my future career because it can be used to draft contracts and legal paper work that must follow an expected format. Knowledge of this skill would make the drafting process much smoother. Additionally, knowing how to use this function would be more efficient and will also have a better presentation. For example, if I were to draft a table and needed to make a change much as the font size of type, the

Ethical Theory Free Essays

Managerial Auditing Journal Emerald Article: On ethical theory in auditing Lutz Preuss Article information: To cite this document: Lutz Preuss, (1998),†On ethical theory in auditing†, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 13 Iss: 9 pp. 500 508 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now doi. org/10. 1108/02686909810245910 Downloaded on: 25-11-2012 References: This document contains references to 47 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 2 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight. com This document has been downloaded 2432 times since 2005. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: * Gary Pflugrath, Nonna Martinov-Bennie, Liang Chen, (2007),†The impact of codes of ethics and experience on auditor judgments†, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 22 Iss: 6 pp. 566 – 589 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/02686900710759389 Beverley Jackling, Barry J. Cooper, Philomena Leung, Steven Dellaportas, (2007),†Professional accounting bodies’ perceptions of ethical issues, causes of ethical failure and ethics education†, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 22 Iss: 9 pp. 928 – 944 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/02686900710829426 Douglas E. Ziegenfuss, Anusorn Singhapakdi, (1994),†Professional Values and the Ethical Perceptions of Internal Auditors†, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 9 Iss: 1 pp. 34 – 44 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/02686909410050433 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by ASTON UNIVERSITY For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. om/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com With over forty years’ experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and ser vices. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. Related content and download information correct at time of download. On ethical theory in auditing Lutz Preuss Lecturer, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK This article discusses ways of giving support to auditors in addressing moral dilemmas. Codes of Ethics are very important in this context but are in the ? nal analysis insuf? cient devices, because their necessarily generalised form has to be translated into the speci? c situation and thus requires acceptance rather than merely adherence. Codes have to be complemented with developed ethical reasoning of accountants. Hence, individual ethical principles are discussed which have been applied to accounting in the recent literature, i. e. utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics and ethics of care. Unsurprisingly, none emerges as giving completely satisfactory solutions. Yet eclecticism can be avoided by using compound models, which combine individual principles to provide reasonably comprehensive cover of decision-making in a business context. As in any other profession, practitioners of accounting, be they public accountants, management accountants or internal auditors, may face moral dilemmas in their work. In mapping out the ? eld of potentially con? icting interests, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (1997, p. i), the oldest professional body in the UK, stipulates: The primary duty of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland is to the public. This principle determines its status as a professional body . The ICAS (1997, p. vii) requires that: In addition to the duties owed to the public and to his or her employer, a member of the Institute is bound to observe high standards of conduct, which may sometimes be contrary to his personal self-interest. The author would like to thank Professor Gerald Vinten, editor of Managerial Auditing Journal, and Stephen Morrow, Department of Accountancy and Finance, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, for their helpful suggestions. Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508  © MCB University Press [ISSN 0268-6902] The public accountant is the con? dential agent of the community at large, but the public does not (re)appoint auditors (for speci? c moral dilemmas facing external auditors, see Gunz and McCutcheon, 1991; Moizer 1995; Finn et al. , 1994). Management accountants and internal auditors are employees of the corporation; hence their employment position may collide with their professional values. They too have a responsibility to society – comparable to an engineer’s concern for public safety – and are required by the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales to observe â€Å"the same standards of behaviour and competence as apply to all other members† (Statement 1. 220, quoted in Maurice, 1996, p. 184). Ethical dilemmas tend to be complex and only hazily de? nable. In accounting, moral agency often becomes a question of causation (Moizer, 1995, p. 425f. ), as the content of an audit report may not have an obvious link with a speci? c result: if an auditor quali? es a company’s accounts, has he actually caused an ensuing bankruptcy? Furthermore, the very subject matter of accounting is such that two equally objective accountants may reach different results. The most visible response by all professional accountancy bodies has been to set up codes of ethics, e. g. by the Institute of Internal Auditors in 1968. Their very existence sets limits for immoral behaviour and offers guidance in ambiguous situations. Studies of members of the Institute of Internal Auditors (Siegel et al. , 1995; Ziegenfuss and Singhapakdi, 1994) found that a clear majority do use the code of ethics in their work. It is seen primarily as an instrument for giving guidance in moral dilemmas (64 per cent) rather than a means to enhance the profession’s public perception (16 per cent). Research by Dittenhofer and colleagues offers an insightful longitudinal perspective nto changing moral beliefs of internal auditors in the light of the IIA Code of Ethics. In 1982 Dittenhofer and Klemm (1983) presented a random sample of IIA members with 20 vignettes, each describing morally contentious issues, and asked respondents to indicate their reaction, ranging from dismissal of the person to doing nothing because no ethical problem is perceived to exist. In 1994 Dittenhofer and Sennetti (1995) repeated the survey, again sa mpling IIA members. In many cases the authors found signi? cant changes, with IIA members having become more critical and supporting harsher action. So the proportion of respondents who claim they would dismiss an internal audit supervisor who engaged in insider dealing (situation 4) has risen from 50. 1 to 63. 0 per cent, with particularly large increases for trainees/journeymen (+70 per cent), in the category staff status, and insurance (+40 per cent) in the category employer’s activity . However, some cases – arguably less severe ones – have shown little change over the decade or even a decline. In any case, there were no signi? cant differences in terms of gender or age groups. Most astonishing, so Dittenhofer and Sennetti claim, was the fact that for each scenario almost the complete spectrum of attitudes was represented, which indicates that there is no consensus among internal auditors as to what is right or wrong. Codes of ethics are not sufficient to resolve moral dilemmas. For a start, violations of codes have persisted (Finn et al. , 1994; Loeb, 1971; Pearson, 1987). A distinction has to be made between acceptance of a code and mere adherence to it (Loeb, 1971), which may stem from a strong organisational climate or a fear of being penalised. Furthermore, codes in their universalised form, cannot cover all eventualities. Analysing Dittenhofer and [ 500 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 Klemm’s (1983) research, Vinten (1996, p. 56) found a two-fold problem: for some scenarios – clearly morally contentious ones – it was unclear exactly which article of the IIA Code applied and also what response the Code required. Swanda (1990) and Vyakarnam et al. , (1996) found that accountants isplay a tendency to revert to technical knowledge when facing ambiguous moral situations. Hence Mintz (1995) argues that accountants need both technical and moral expertise as well as the intention and ability to act against self-interest if morality requires doing so. Vinten (1990, p. 10) sees three types of codes: 1 a regulatory code, such as the Ten Commandments. It establishes a complete overlap between behaviour and code, which is furnished with such a compe lling ethical imperative that further discussion is neither necessary nor asked for. It does, however, not recognise shades of grey . 2 an aspirational code, such as the wisdom literature in the Jewish Scriptures. It provides the standard a person should aspire to but recognises that full compliance may rarely be possible. Yet it provides little help in weighing up alternative courses of action. 3 an educational code: this holds rules and regulations to be unhelpful if not damaging and instead stresses the importance of the individual conscience in a professional situation. The unsatisfactory nature of codes of ethics, Vinten suggests, may stem from the predominance of the regulatory model. It emerges that de? ning ethics as â€Å"the rules of conduct recognised in the human life department of the practice of professional accountancy† (Maurice, 1996, p. 9) is too limited. Codes of ethics have to be reinforced with moral development of accountants. Thus researchers have studied the status quo of moral development in the profession (Finn et al. , 1994 of certi? ed public accountants, Ziegenfuss et al. , 1994, of internal auditors and management accountants). Some authors have then discussed possible improvements of moral development within Lawrence Kohlberg’s framework for cognitive moral development (Lovell, 1995, 1997; Sweeney and Roberts, 1997). Others have sought to clarify how far individual ethical theories and principles are applicable to accounting dilemmas, although the discussion has often been limited to utilitarianism and deontology (Maurice, 1996; Moizer, 1995). Only over the last few years have alternative ethical theories been applied to accounting (Mintz, 1995; Francis, 1990; Oakes and Hammond, 1995; Reiter, 1996, 1997). The aim of this article is to draw the discussion of these ethical theories and principles together into a comprehensive system, where the advantages and disadvantages of individual principles are highlighted. Following Hartman (1994) ethical theories shall be understood less as prescription for action than as tools for understanding complex situations. 1. Utilitarian ethics Teleological or consequentialist ethics judges the rightness or wrongness of an act by its consequences. The most elaborate consequentialist theory is that of utilitarianism, as propagated by Jeremy Bentham (1789/1962). In the de? nition of his disciple John Stuart Mill (1861/1962, p. 257): Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. Utilitarianism is a strongly democratic theory as every individual is to be given as much consideration as anybody else is. It should be pointed out that Bentham saw this principle not as a watertight moral theory but as a tool for political decision making. Utilitarianism faces obvious practical problems in its moral arithmetic. Mill introduced a distinction between higher and lower pleasures, yet it is still far from clear how different pleasures of different intensities can be summed up, how a strong immediate desire compares with a life-long moderate one, etc. Agents may lack sufficient time to calculate all the consequences or may overestimate their own sufferings and underestimate somebody else’s happiness. This kind of criticism can partly be averted by applying the principle of utility not to single acts, act-utilitarianism, but to classes of acts, rule-utilitarianism. Under rule-utilitarianism an act is morally obligatory if it falls into a category of acts, which in their collectivity tend to produce more happiness than pain. It is no longer necessary to know all the implications of an action; one can rely on past evidence to get a fairly accurate account of an act’s potential consequences. Rule-utilitarianism is applied in a council recommendation by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland issued in 1971 (quoted in Moizer, 1995, p. 422), which: †¦ recommends that members †¦ hould not disclose past or intended civil wrongs, crimes †¦ or statutory offences unless they feel the damage to the public likely to arise from non-disclosure is of a very serious nature. [ 501 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 Rule-utilitarianism, however, can be shown to collapse into act-utilitarianism, if one follows the rule â€Å"in situations of type x, do y or whatever else maximises utility† (Smart, 1967). Also, the difficulty or perhaps impossibility of a moral calculation has not been solved. Since utilitarianism is to consider all consequences of an action, this includes not only consequences for yet unborn generations but also side effects the agent has not brought about actively, and these may well overshadow intended consequences. Intuitively, one would hesitate to blame a moral agent on this basis. Utilitarianism in accounting Utilitarianism has two advantages over alternative ethical theories for application in business. It links self-interest with moral behaviour, and a company is per de? nition self-interested. Secondly, the calculation of bene? and harm is similar to pro? t and loss accounting and hence more likely to ? nd acceptance with business practitioners than rival ethical theories. By default, utilitarianism is the most in? uential ethical theory in the business context. Most economic and ? nance concepts are implicitly or explicitly built on the assumption that individuals are interested in maximising short-term self-interest. A resulting intellectual pa renthood of accounting theory and methods in utilitarianism becomes important in the debate over the neutrality of accounting information. Neutralists, like Solomons (1991), argue that it is not the task of accountancy to be an agent of change in society Accountants should merely convey . unbiased information, on which users can then base their decisions. Radical accountants, such as Tinker (1991), have questioned whether accounting information can actually be neutral. As accounting is embedded in social reality – it is neither inexplicably given nor a straight re? ection of social reality – and in social con? ict, its theory and methods inevitably favour one side of the con? ict over another. Thus Lovell (1997) ? ds it problematic that accounting concepts are often presented as neutral or even as morally correct, without pointing out their roots in utilitarian thought. There is evidence (Gray et al. , 1994; Lovell, 1997; Ponemon, 1992) that accounting and other means of organisational control compress moral reasoning within the lowest stages of Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1981) hierarchy of cognitive mora l development. Kohlberg sees moral development progressing from an instrumental use of other persons via the acceptance of a social order to abstract principles which, if necessary, over- ride human laws. Where accounting control is assumed to work because people do not want their underperformance to be detected, a stage one motivation exists. Linking acceptable performance to ? nancial bonuses assumes a stage two motivation. At stage three a person performs as required because she wants to win or maintain the respect of colleagues, a stage four motivation shows in a belief that the law, either respective state laws or the organisational â€Å"laws†, are to be obeyed for their own sake (Lovell, 1997, p. 155). On the other hand, inasmuch as it prevents illegal or immoral practices, accounting control does have a moral quality . . Deontological ethics Deontological ethics focuses on duty or moral obligation, deon being the Greek word for duty There are various deontological con. cepts, such as â€Å"Do unto others as thou wouldst have them do unto you†, but the most rigorous version was developed by Immanuel Kant (1785/1898). He sees a sharp difference between self-interes t and morality and proposes that an action only has moral value if it is performed from duty Kant proposes his . Categorical Imperative (1785/1898, p. 38). Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become universal law. A different version of the Categorical Imperative reads (1785/1898, p. 47) . So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end, never as means only . A maxim, a rational principle, which underlies an action, has to ful? l two criteria to become universally binding: ? rst it has to be shown that the maxim can be universalised without contradiction. Breaking promises if the disadvantages outweigh the bene? ts is not universalisable, because if it was nobody could rely on anybody telling the truth anymore. Secondly, one has to show that a rational agent ought to will the maxim, i. e. that it actually creates conditions which are conducive to human life. Some actions, however, are universalisable but nonetheless seem wrong: a religious fundamentalist may reason it necessary to treat opponents in horrendously brutal ways and accept that he would be treated in the very same fashion if he were in the opposing camp. Other cases are not universalisable but do not seem morally wrong; universal contraception would bring humanity to an end but to most people it does not seem wrong in individual cases. Furthermore duties, imposed by [ 502 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 several categorical imperatives, may clash; here the principle offers no further solution. On the other hand, Kantian morality links with popular conceptions of morality, e. g. that some actions simply are never permissible, whatever the gain to individuals or society . The link between morality and the will of the agent allows us to praise people for their intentions even if the results fall short of expectations. A deontological approach is also the most important basis for criminal law. Deontology in accounting A deontological perspective underlies much of the self-regulation in accountancy, see for instance the explicit requirement by the Auditing Practices Committee in the US on qualifying a company’s accounts on a going concern basis (Moizer, 1995, p. 424): The auditor should not refrain from qualifying his report if it is otherwise appropriate, merely on the grounds that it may lead to the appointment of a receiver or liquidator. rong, even if it prevented a major disaster; witness the protracted debate on the evaluation of whistleblowing (Vinten, 1994), where accountancy bodies for a long time held that concerned employees may raise their concern to superiors but must not under any circumstances report to outsiders without authorisation. A strong deontological emphasis has the disadvantage that compliance with rules is taken to be moral. â€Å"One feels as an accountant†, said a participant in a study by Vyakarnam et al. (1996, p. 159) that â€Å"there are so many rules and regulations that anything outside is acceptable. A consensus to work just above the required minimum can lead to a situation where the minimum becomes expected and pressure increases to drop standards further. 3. Virtue ethics In contrast to the universal emphasis on moral duty in deontology and on general happiness in utilitarianism, Aristotle emphasises the importance of a person’s character for morality He suggests that the highest . human good is happiness, not in a crude material sense, but in a comprehensive meaning which carries connotations of ? ourishing and well-being. This highest good is closely linked to the function of a human being, which is to obey reason, as this is the main characteristic to set humans apart from other living beings. As a good ? autist plays the ? ute well or a good knife cuts well, Aristotle argues, so a good human is good at applying reason. Acting according to good reason is the distinguishing feature of virtuous behaviour. Reason helps to avoid both excess and de? ciency; so the virtue of courage shows the healthy mean between cowardice and rashness. To acquire this kind of virtue, people need practical wisdom, which can only be acquired by experience and habituation. Aristotle (1985, trans. Irwin) de? nes that â€Å"the virtue of a human being will †¦ be the state that makes a human being good and makes him perform his function well† (1106a20-24). Virtue ethics distinguishes between internal and external rewards, a distinction utilitarianism cannot make. Internal goods emerge from speci? c practices. They can only be experienced after a long engagement in the practice and their achievement bene? ts the whole of the community External goods are . not uniquely related to any practice; they are an individual’s property and are objects of competition. Thus, when Turner revolutionised the painting of sky and clouds, he created an internal good, irrespective of This clear, deontological view is necessitated by the public role of the accountancy profession which requires it to place above any other the public interest in being informed of the auditors doubts about the ability of the company to continue trading. There may be individual cases where an auditor, after considering the consequences of a quali? cation, would want to give the company a clean account; the more since a quali? cation is only a weak indication of business failure. The case of BCCI, Moizer (1995, p. 429) argues, has shown the danger in taking such an act-utilitarian approach. BCCI’s auditors Price Waterhouse considered qualifying the accounts in April 1990 but reasoned that auditors â€Å"owe a duty to shareholders to consider very carefully the possible impact of their report† because a quali? ed report would have more dramatic consequences for a bank than for an industrial concern. BCCI’s accounts were not quali? ed, and the bank was able to trade for another 14 months before it ? nally collapsed in July 1991. Moizer (1995, p. 30) concludes that the profession’s Code, which is based on either deontological or rule-utilitarian approaches, must be followed without regard to the particular situation; auditors ought not to consider the consequences of their actions, â€Å"since they have already been evaluated for the profession as a whole†. Deontological ethics is uncompromising by de? nition, but the complete disregard for circumstances can lead to morally dubious requirements. Few would follow the Kantian notion that telling a lie should always be [ 503 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 he external goods, such as fame and income, he attained too (MacIntyre, 1985, p. 190f. ). Virtues and accounting Virtue ethics considers both intention and outcome, where duty-based ethics and utilitarianism only see one; it also links morality with self-interest. Principle-based ethics rarely ever gives unambiguous advice; it faces counter-examples, sometimes its conclusion runs counter to moral intuition. Virtue ethics, on the other hand, recognises that there are no easy answers and stresses the importance of practical wisdom in dealing with a moral dilemma. Mintz (1995, p. 259) argues that: virtues enable accounting professionals to resolve con? icting duties and loyalties in a morally appropriate way because they provide the inner strength of character to withstand pressures that might otherwise overwhelm and negatively in? uence professional judgment in a relationship of trust. He sees two virtues as having particular importance for the accounting profession, integrity, which enables the auditor to maintain objectivity under competitive pressure and trustworthiness, which ensures public con? ence in a professional service. The notion of virtuous behaviour in accounting is again linked to the discussion of the neutrality of accounting information. The neutralist perspective (Solomons, 1991) sees a clear distinction between the accountant as accountant and as citizen, and only in the latter capacity can the person legitimately express concern over social issues. Tinker (1991, p. 305), however, sees a social world where roles are inextri cably intertwined and con? icting, and where the individual needs to develop a social selfconsciousness for transcending con? cts. The same accounting individual often appears on several sides in the same dispute, and without self-awareness about her role interdependencies, may ultimately contribute to her own repression and exploitation! wisdom, which differs from the routine application of rules, such as those by the professional bodies. Furthermore, the use of computer-aided decision models does actually remove the possibility of developing virtuous behaviour. The main drawback of virtue ethics lies in its relativism (Hartman, 1994). Aristotle’s de? nition of virtue as a mean between two extremes makes sense to all communities, but only in a formal way The communities decide . what the two extremes are, and by this what the mean is. Hence, there is no neutral objective standpoint from which a good community can be distinguished from bad ones. Most humans belong to a number of communities, the community of their employer, their family, a sports club. There can be diverging de? nitions of community, which lead to diverging conceptions of the required virtues. A management accountant may take her employer to be her community and rate loyalty to it higher than loyalty to the general public. There are also practical problems with virtue ethics. Stressing the importance of character and practical wisdom does not already give concrete advice. The focus on character also neglects power distribution in organisations; it may actually disguise power structures and prevent change. The rich language of virtue ethics also lends itself for PR exercises. 4. Ethics of care The ethics of care has been developed as a feminist critique of the traditional moral philosophy on the basis of rights and rules. Traditional ethics is grounded in a view of others as potentially dangerous; thus rights become an important means to underscore claims against others and rules are needed to settle con? ict. The moral responsibility arising from both rights and rules is universal; it binds all moral agents equally (cf. the principle of utilitarianism or Kant’s Categorical Imperative) but makes the individual person replaceable without any loss to the ethical principle. Feminist authors have contended that the ethics of rights is essentially a male perspective and re? cts male dominance in western society and thought. Gilligan (1982) argues that female morality does not centre on abstract principles but contextualises moral responses by drawing on personal experiences. It focuses on adequate responses to the needs and concerns of close individuals. Feminist philosophers see the self as being determined by its relationship with others Francis (1990) sees three main obstacles for more virtuous a ccounting. First, the relationship between internal and external rewards is slanted heavily towards the latter. The virtue integrity may be compromised by the bene? s of retaining a client. Secondly, the organisation of accounting into a small number of large private companies may hamper the development of virtuous professional norms. Under the prevailing competitive pressure the profession has demonstrated a lack of solidarity which has manifested itself particularly in auditor switching. Thirdly, virtues require the application of practical [ 504 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 (Noddings, 1984). Instead of bargaining between rational agents and rule-based settlement of con? ct, an ethics of care focuses on respect for others; maintaining the relationship is valued higher than scoring a victory or exercising one’s right. Ethics of care and accounting An ethics of care has been applied both directly to the acc ounting profession and in the concept of a caring organisation. Burton and Dunn (1996, p. 139) suggest that a company could be said to care if â€Å"it exhibits caring behaviour consistent with ? rm policy†. A company is here seen as a secondary caring agent, dependent on the primary caring actions of its organisational members. Liedtka (1996) ? ds that much of the present rhetoric about caring for customers or employees is just â€Å"care-talk† but suggests a caring organisation can be built. Apart from having caring employees, organisational support is crucial, because the organisation largely shapes the person’s role within it and must also provide the resources for caring. Employees would be seen as central, because they are the people who deal directly with customers and thus ultimately determine the success or failure of the business. Reiter (1996) suggests that caring is a valuable trait for employees, especially in the service sector. A caring ? rm could enjoy a competitive advantage in capability-driven markets, because it engenders trust and reduces transaction costs. Reiter (1997) claims that an ethics of care can foster a better understanding of the underlying principles of the accounting profession, such as auditor independence. This independence is to be achieved by a number of detailed rules which determine the relationship between auditor and client, yet true mental separation from the client would require the auditor to work in a social vacuum, and the rule-based approach can be seen as arbitrary The contextual perspective . f the ethics of care, Reiter suggests, provides the alternative metaphor of interdependence. This allows de? ning an appropriate balance of interests, on which users of accounting information could rely more than on the appearance of independence. Such thinking in? uenced the framework approach by the ICAEW (Maurice, 1996, p. 43). In accounting education, an ethics of care provides an important balance to rightsbased approaches. Reiter (1996, p. 48) discusses training material compiled by the American Accounting Association and Arthur Andersen and ? ds a â€Å"tendency of the AAA approach to frame con? icts as moral dilemmas where the choice is between resignation and hopeless compromise of integrity†. A win-win-situation, and above all a positive learning effect for accounting students, may be more likely to come from a care perspective, which â€Å"focusses on understanding others’ situations and points of view and determining what can be done to maintain appropriate relationships between the self and others† (1996, p. 48). An ethics of care can also impact on accounting research (Oakes and Hammond, 1995), e. g. y challenging the possibility of a disinterested neutral scholar and thus asking how the researcher’s experiences and perspective in? uence the choice of research question. The interconnectedness of accountant and society ra ises the question of how current accounting practice affects the lives of people, especially the economically disenfranchised. This in turn challenges the assumptions regarding economic behaviour. The contextual approach of an ethics of care introduces a relativist element. This is not merely a practical problem for the accounting profession, in that accounting information may become less comprehensible to outside users. It indicates a deeper philosophical ? aw in the application of an ethics of care to economic life. Burton and Dunn (1996, p. 142) considered the dilemma of a company wanting to dispose of lead acid batteries. Showing care for those that are close – its local community – the ? rm decides to recycle the batteries rather than dumping them. The dangers involved in handling the batteries suggest they are better not handled by workers in the US, again the company displays care for close stakeholders. But would recycling in Taiwan be a moral alternative? Burton and Dunn attempt to rescue the model by introducing â€Å"A hybrid approach, ecommending that special attention be given to the least advantaged members of the moral community†, e. g. that the ? rm applies the same employee protection measures in Taiwan as it would in the US, even though this is not mandatory However, exempting the least . advantaged stakeholder shifts the burden onto the second least advantaged, until they turn into the least advantaged and get exempted, etc. The relativist problem leads to a further paradox: if others are all important in the de? nition of the self, then the self does not exist independently of these others. Wicks et al. , (1994, p. 483) de? ne a company as â€Å"constituted by the network of relationships which it is involved in†, yet as Burton and Dunn (1996) observed, this is close to the view of transaction cost economics. [ 505 ] Lutz Preuss On ethical theory in auditing Managerial Auditing Journal 13/9 [1998] 500–508 5. Compound models of ethics So far ethical theories have been considered in isolation from each other. Unsurprisingly in view of the complex nature of moral issues, none offers a completely satisfactory solution to moral problems in accounting. However, an unsystematic application of ethical principles carries the danger of eclecticism, of a pick-and-mix ethics, where an agent could select the ethical approach most suitable to furthering his own aims. A more secure theoretical foundation can be found in compound models. Brady (1985) suggested a â€Å"Janus-headed† model of ethics, further developed in Brady and Dunn (1995), which combines deontological and utilitarian requirements and proposes that an action should only be carried out if it violates neither. Kantian deontology and utilitarianism should be seen as complementing each other; Moizer (1995) found them to be the two dominant ethical theories in accounting rule making. A particular advantage of this compound model lies in its capability to capture both the universality of a situation, in the universalisability of Kantian deontology, and the particularity, via the utilitarian principle, for which, in order to calculate the greatest good of the greatest number, one must know the particulars of the situation (Brady nd Dunn, 1995, p. 394). Cavanagh et al. (1981) suggest a different version of a compound model, where an act would be unethical if it violated any of the following principles: (a) to optimise utility for all stakeholders involved; (b) to respect the rights of the individuals concerned; and (c) to be consistent with norms of justice. Later work by the three authors (1995) enlarged this model by asking (d) whether the act arises from an impulse to care, to a utility-right sjustice-care model. The decision-maker should also take account of clashes between principles, as well as of overwhelming or incapacitating factors, which would â€Å"justify overriding one of the ethical criteria† (1981, p. 370). Cavanagh et al. (1995, p. 399) argue that the advantage of their model lies in its practicality; it does not require business decisionmakers to handle abstract ethical principles but translates them into familiar norms, which then can be applied to concrete situations. Both models have had considerable in? uence in the business ethics debate; they have been applied in case studies and business ethics textbooks. The utility-rights-justice model was even chosen by Arthur Andersen for its business ethics programme. The two teams of authors have spent a great deal of energy arguing the practical applicability or capturing distinction of their respective models. However, the main problem lies in the legitimation of selecting components. The very existence of competing models and the enlargement of one (the authors also considered the inclusion of a ? fth element of virtue) raises doubt whether any universally acceptable composition of a compound model can be achieved at all. Cavanagh et al. 1981) made important concessions when they allowed for mitigating circumstances for decision-makers who are not fully in control of the situation. Furthermore, decision-makers, who have â€Å"strong and reasonable doubts about the legitimacy of an ethical criterion, can legitimately be excused from adhering to that criterion† (1981, p. 371). None of the two teams offers advice on how to resolve clashes between principles. Cavanagh et al. , (1981, p. 370) note that there are â€Å"no well-de? ned rules† for such clashes, they â€Å"can be resolved only by making a considered judgment concerning which of the con? cting criteria should be accorded the most weight in the given situation. † While the necessity of making such caveats is perfectly understood, nonetheless, a certain amount of arbitrariness may result in the application of compound models. On the other hand, both models secure a reasonably complete â€Å"coverage of the ethical terrain in business decision-making† (Brady and Dunn, 1995, p. 386). Eclecticism in the selection of compound models still guarantees a comprehensive range of ethical principles, which would not be the case for eclecticism in the selection of individual ethical principles. It should also be noted that the utility-rights-justice-care model allows for only one criterion to be set aside, having â€Å"reasonable doubts† about more than one would not longer qualify as legitimate. 6. Conclusion The discussion set out from a realisation that Codes of Ethics in accounting are an important but in the end insufficient device for addressing moral con? ict, thus stressing the need for moral development of the person. Individual ethical theories and principles have been discussed of which none emerges as an all-round favourite for giving advice in moral dilemmas. Yet between the Scylla of offering no advice at all and the Charybdis of eclecticism in the selection of ethical principles, a safe course can be steered under the guidance of compound models. 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Implementation of Levels of Automation Free-Samples for Students

Question: Write a Report on Implementation of Levels of Automation and Group Technology in Batch. Answer: Key words related to this assignment are: Automation, taxonomy, allocation, manufacturing, levels of automation, assembly, concept model. Journals/publications found or related are: Fasth, ., Stahre, J. (2010, June). Concept model towards optimising Levels of Automation (LoA) in assembly systems. In Proceedings of the 3rd CIRP Conference on Assembly Technologies and Systems (pp. 1-3). Frohm, J., Lindstrm, V., Winroth, M., Stahre, J. (2008). Levels of automation in manufacturing. Ergonomia. Summary and Introduction The report presents a detailed literature review and analysis on implementation of levels of automation and group technology in batch manufacturing. Two publications or articles are reviewed and analyzed relating to this topic by presenting the arguments from the two sets of views. According to the article levels of automation in manufacturing by Frohm et al. (2008), the main objective was to explore the concepts of automation (LoA). The authors have presented a comprehensive literature review on definitions as well as taxonomies for the levels of automation crossways multiple scientific alongside industrial domains. This was aimed at increasing the understanding of task allocation within the semi-automated systems as well as providing a systematic approach for altering the level of automation. Frohm et al. (2008) have suggested the synthesizing concept encompassing a LoA definition as well as taxonomy projected at application in the manufacturing domain. The results presented by the authors suggest the level of automation need to be divided in two distinct variables that is physical or mechanical LoA and cognitive or information-linked LoA. They have also suggested that LoA in a manufacturing setting can be described as well as assessed utilizing seven-step references scales for the physical as well as cognitive LoA in that order. Frohm et al. (2008) argue that highly automated product realization has remained a significant channel for industry to meet low-cost economies competition, mainly because of comparable high wage cost witnessed in the United States and Europe for example. The authors have recognized that in the entire 20th century, elaborate efforts aimed at developing automated production processes were utilized by the manufacturing firms to increase efficiency radically as well as sustain a high production quality. Frohm et al. (2008) argue that increased automation was then not solely concerned with real manufacturing processes, but also focused on such supporting task as material handling, storage as well as transport. Nevertheless, the authors argue, even despite the existence of such ambitions in the 1980s to create the so-called light-out factories with complete automation in every production unit, a great percentage of automated systems within the manufacturing have remained semi-automatic whereby manufacturing system consist of automated and manual task combinations, particularly within assembly operations that have remained generally more challenging to automate at the justifiable costs. According to the other publication entitled concept model towards optimizing Levels of Automation (LoA) in assembly systems by Fasth Stahre (2010), advanced automation is a common solution in achieving high productivity as well as quality. Nevertheless, the authors held that the human operator remains at pace with automation based on flexibility alongside adaptability. Hence, the authors argue that appropriate levels of automation have to be selected in order to meet the triggers for change provoked by internal as well as demands. In that respect, therefore, Fasth Stahre (2010) presents a concept model that is aimed at the optimization of automation solutions in assembly system to avoid over/under automated systems. Fasth Stahre (2010) argue that current tradition for the design as well as utilization of assembly systems might never be adoptable to the needs as well as future challenges that production firms are facing. In this sense, they hold that increasing customization of products leads to a decrease in production batch sizes, particularly in the assembly operations. Hence, Asa and Johan argue that companies have to increase their respective capability to handle faster change-over between various product cohorts and novel products. Fasth Stahre (2010) argue that companies must suitably allocate task between resources (machines and operators) and technique and have to be dynamically changeable over period. However, Fasth Stahre (2010) recognize that it is common that designers automate each subsystem that culminate in the economic benefit for that particular subsystem thus leaving the operator to manage the rest. Again, Fasth Stahre (2010) warns that merely choosing solutions on the basis of solely experience and feelings instead of facts and numbers is unable to the optimal solution when the system is being designed. Fasth Stahre (2010) further argue that the DYNAMO++ method development has subsequently permitted the mechanical assessment and cognitive LoA thereby guaranteeing results in the visualization of potential improvements of automation solutions in the systems that are semi-automated. The authors portend that such a DYNAMO++ method has allowed the company to merge feelings alongside facts to decrease sub-optimization alongside over and under automated system. Literature Review and Analysis Frohm et al. (2008) opposed the initial argument that it remains a common case that progression from manual operations to full blown automation is made in a single step that is where operators are substituted with robots/advanced machinery. Frohm et al. (2008) argued that providing the user tools or additional support in order to achieve the task is seeable as increasing the automation level and approaching fully fledged automation. Nevertheless, the authors portend that by merely supplying the user with automated hand tool or manual the support of technological level is augmented and operators almost hit full automation when electrical/hydraulic hand tool is replaced with a robot/machine on the floor of the workshop. Frohm et al. (2008) argued that the simplest form of automation commonly operate in 2 modes including automatic and manual but within more complex systems like manufacturing, it is never novel to find multifaceted automation modes of both physical as info and control support. Frohm et al. (2008) noted in their review that only a few publications of levels of automation within manufacturing area exist from which perspective, LoA has frequently been viewed as the manning level. This is to say a comparison between real numbers of operators on workshops floor with respect to machine numbers. On the basis of the review by Frohm et al. (2008) they observed that automation is not all or nothing, however, should instead be viewed as a continuum of the levels of automation, from lowest level of completely manual performance to the highest level of full automation. The authors thus argued that automation can vary crossways a range of levels as well as exists as the continuum of full, partial or no substitution of a function initially undertaken by the human operator. Fasth Stahre (2010) based their argument on the concept model for measuring as well as analyzing level of automation with the aim of visualizing the relations between actions and areas within the firm when altering a system on the basis of levels of automation via task allocation. Fasth Stahre (2010) focused on two questions (benefits/why automate and inappropriate areas for automation alongside manual work) to establish the reason companies decide to automate as a strategic choice when altering the system of production. Based on the results from the survey, Fasth Stahre (2010) argued that the main reasons for automation are lowering the cost as well as becoming increasingly competitiveness. They identified three key areas where automation remained most commonly applied. These include to make sure more clear performance of a particular function; to enhance stability of performance via revealing individual of recurrent and monotonous task as well as to permit processes to be undert aken faster and more efficiently. Applications (relevance to real world) From the two publication (Fasth Stahre (2010) and Frohm et al. (2008)), it is clear that increased cognitive Levels of Automation might enhance the environment of operators and reduce their workload with the contained mechanical automaton. An alteration of mechanical automation shall provide possibilities for enhancing the work environment by removing high risk, monotonous as well as physical demanding work conditions. Thus, it is at this point when machine and human are able to undertake the same task though the question of task allocation becomes into play. It is, therefore, important to view task allocation as complementary between machine and man instead of dividing the task only to one. The concept model used in this publication can be utilized to highlight the relations between distinct areas in system to reduce the sub-optimization and thus avoiding over or under automated system. The selection of the taxonomies for both mechanization and computerization can be effectively assembled in a manner that makes them relevant for the field of manufacturing. This is done by combining automation of those physical task with the ones for control via a concept of mechanization profile. Conclusion The concept model has been utilized in explaining dissimilar relations as well as areas to concern when redesigning the assembly systems. It is thus important to view this model as aim of combining the knowledge of workers with the measured as well as analyzed core factors in the assembly system. It is concluded that the LoA within manufacturing does not constitute one step from manual to a fully blown automated tasks. It is easy to identify the potential that resides in increased/decreased automation by assessing the relevant maximum and minimum and the real LoA using the two seven-step references scales. Such resulting assessment is usable to increase total manufacturing system performance. References Fasth, ., Stahre, J. (2010, June). Concept model towards optimising Levels of Automation (LoA) in assembly systems. In Proceedings of the 3rd CIRP Conference on Assembly Technologies and Systems (pp. 1-3). Frohm, J., Lindstrm, V., Winroth, M., Stahre, J. (2008). Levels of automation in manufacturing. Ergonomia.